The U.S Military and the Hawaiian Islands
DINAH GEORGE
Introduction
The ongoing occupation of the U.S Military on the Hawaiian Islands has been detrimental to the land and culture of the Indigenous People. The site will follow key points in U.S Military history on the islands, like the military takeover of Hawaiian monarch Queen Liliuokalani and the formation of the The pacific Military Range Facility (PMRF) and The United States Pacific Command(USPACOM). The site will focus on military bases, bombing sites, and Kanaka Maoli, Native Hawaiians , on Kaua'i and O'ahu. These places best indicate the effects of land dispossession on the culture, people, and land.
Business as Usual: Industry Since 1778
Hawai'i has been under the influence of foreign business since the British sailor James Cooke "discovered" the islands in 1778. Interaction with Europeans was detrimental to the Kanaka Maoli , Native Hawaiian, population and the aina , land. Foreign diseases ,like tuberculosis, killed many people and reduced the population exponentially. (Lafrance, The Atlantic, 2015) (Kent, 1983). The land dispossession stemmed from capitalistic intersts in resources unique to the islands, like various fruits and the sandalwood trees. Eventually, much of the land found it's way into foreign control. The Great Mahele aided in the land grab by white foreigners. Out of all the other industries, the sugar industry was probably the most socially and economically definitive to the islands.
The sugar industry was composed of five companies : Hackfield and Company (Amfac), C. Brewer and Company, Theo Davis Company, Castle and Cooke, and Alexander and Baldwin. "The Big Five" controlled every aspect of life. The "Big Five" controlled things as big as the Hawaiian government, and as small as the price of bread. The Kanaka Maoli that survived the onset of diseases, worked on sugar plantaations with immigrant laborers brought to the islands. The dynamic between these groups created the current racial dynamic amongst indigenous people and residents of Hawai'i. The Big Five even had control of the ruling Hawaiian monarchy. Their reach was that long and that powerful. Ultimately, The Big Five's power and infleunce on the islands led to the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy and the existing US occupation of Hawai'i. .
The Great Mahele and Land Dispossession
The Great Mahele (1845-1855) is one of the most important documents regarding land dispossession of Kanaka Maoli . In this document, Hawaiian monarch King Kamehameha III reconfigured the laws and rights surrounding land ownership. The Great Mahele took the complete control of the land from the monarchy, and divided the land into allotments that could be placed for sale. This enactment was similar to the United States Dawes Act of 1887 since it led to white land grab of Indigenous lands. The European ideas of individual property were forced on Indigenous people across the world but the same cannnot be said about Hawai'i. The Great Mahele was enacted by King Kamehameha III on his own accord. He was influenced by white settlers and business owners, but he was not forced by another power to create the Great Mahele. To say that those ourside of the monarchy agreed with the allotment of land would be false, but the emergence of European property laws in Hawai'i differs from other Indigenious peoples (Banner, 2005).
The Great Mahele divided Hawai'i into crown lands (that went to King Kamehameha), and government lands (that went to chiefs and the people). This act was meant to relinquish control of lands by the monarchy/government and place it into the hands of the people. Sadly, chiefs and foreigners grew to control large portions of the lands meant for the commoners. The lands allocated for commoners were either not offered or land acquisition was made extremely difficult through unreasonable prices. In some cases, foreigners evicted rightful owners without due process (Rhodes, 2001). The redistribution of land was meant to aid the common Native Hawaiian, but in reality is placed them in a subservient postion with their government, and with foreign businessmen. In the end, the overthrow of Queen Lili'uokalani in 1893 placed crown lands for sale to the public, lost to Kanaka Maoli . The Great Mahele was meant to aid the Hawaiian kingdom, it aided in its downfall.
The Overthrow of Queen Lili'uokalani
Queen Lili'uokalani ascended the throne in 1891, and set the goal to re-establish Hawaiian sovereignty. Her goal was "not to organize the Hawaiian people for an all-out struggle ,but rather to attack the institutions of elite control from her position as monarch." (Kent, 1983) The discussion of annexation into the United States was an ongoing debate, but the majority of the population believed in the monarchy. Queen Lili'uokalani became a threat to the ruling white business owners because her claim to the thrown dismissed the Bayonet Constitution put into place by the Big Five.(Kent, 1983)
The official challenge came on January 14th, 1893. Queen Lili'uokalani enacted a new constitution that " asserted the power of the monarchy over the government and declared that all cabinet ministers, would henceforth serve at her pleasure". (Kent, 1983) The Big Five retaliated with The Committee of Public Safety. This militia was composed of haoles , white business owners and residents, who aimed to "restore law and order" on the islands. The following day, United States military invaded the island. The fleet led by Captain Wiltse of the Boston landed on the shores of O'ahu. The queen was prepared for the fight against the Committee of Public Safety but knew an act against the U.S would mean the slaughter of her people. With the aid of the United States military, The Committee of Public Safety overthrew the monarchy and established the Republic of Hawai'i. Eventually, Hawai'i was annexed into the United States. August 21st 1959, made the archipelago of islands the 50th state in the Union.
The overthrow of Queen Lili'uokalani was a hostile coup, and it was the beginning of the United States occupation of Hawai'i. The coup would not have succeeded without the muscle of the United States military. The Hawaiian monarchy was a recognized international power, that was illegally occupied by the United States. The United States military has altered the physical composition of the islands, and has effected the lives of Kanaka Maoli .
Location. Location. Location: The Strategic Importance of the Hawaiian Islands
Hawaii's location in the Pacific Ocean is a safeguard to the United States commercial and military interets. The placement of military bases on the islands during the 19th and 20th century gave the military the advantage of an "unsinkable base" (Harris, 2014). Island bases were meant "to protect and extend the reach of the US merchant marine and navy, serving as way stations and communications facilities for commercial vessels and military ships" (Harris, 2014). The islands act as a line of defense to other international military powers (like Japan and China), a means of communication across occupied Pacific Island nations, and play an economic advantage with tourism.
Hawai'i was a part of a larger picture in the the United State's expansion into the Pacific. The acquired lands from the Treaty of Paris in 1898 gave the United States an opportunity to take control of islands like the Philippines and Guam. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor during the Second World War and the threat of Communist China during the Cold War was motivation for the U.S to expand their reach into the Pacific.
Kanaka Maoli and the Aina
Genealogical Relationship to Aina
The idea of the aina (land) is intertwined with the existence of Kanaka Maoli (Native Hawaiians). Kumulimpo is the sacred chant that tells the origin of Hawai'i and Kanaka Maoli. This is one of the most important chants in Native Hawaiian culture and religion. Historian Lilikala Kameeleihiwia says the Kumulipo is " the essential lesson... that every aspect of the world is related by birth, and as such, all parts of the Hawaiian world are one indivisible lineage...(and) the genealogy of the Land, the Gods, the Chiefs, and people intertwine with each other, and with all the myriad aspects of the universe". (Brown, 2014)
In the Kumulipo, it begins with the period of Po, the period of darkness. Wakea "The Sky Father" breaks through the darkness, and the universe is created. Later on, Wakea and
Weapons Testing on " The Garden Island" (Kaua'i)
The Pacific Military Range Facility Barking Sands (PMRF) has occupied land on Kaua'i since the 1940s. Beginning as a simple air field, they evolved into a complex missile testing and training facility that can "support surface, subsurface, air, and space training scenarios". (Letman, 2017)
Government agencies like NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), the Missle Defense Agency (MDA), and most importantly The United States Military continue to use this base for various field experiments. The PMRF is controlled by the United States Navy and
PMRF resides on land once owned by the Kekaha Sugar Company. The company was founded by Valdemar Knudsen in 1856, and I speculate the land acquired by Knudsen came from the recent redistribution of land in The Great Mahele . The company history indicates Knudsen "acquired a 30-year
lease on crown lands in the Waimea" found in the south-western portion of the Kaui'i. (Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association University of Hawai'i at Manoa, 2004) If Knudsen was one of the many foreign businessmen that targeted the islands in the redistribution of land, the United States military's purchase of the Barking Sands
(the foundation to the current PMRF) airfield indicates land dispossession existed with capitalistic interest, and evolved with the U.S military's occupation of the Hawaiian Islands.
The Pacific Military Range Facility is unique to other U.S Military locations on the islands because of their control of the seas. "Warning zones" or "exclusion zones" are declared for missle testing sites and field exercises. People are either strongly advised or completely excluded from entering these zones on the sea (Dyke, 2002). These zones can be detrimental to fishing economies, and can place fear in residents of Kaui'i. In an article by the the Kaui'i newspaper The Garden Island , the United States military dismisses involvement in the death of male trigger fish Humuhumu (Zickos, 2009). Although a representative claims there were no tests that would "harm fish or maritime mammals", reservations were held about the "testing" that occurred during the fish kills.
There is an obvious difference between the image of Na' Pali coast and the Pacific Missle Range Facility (PMRF). Kaui'i is known as "the Garden Island" but the image of the Pacific Missle Range Facility demonstrates an almost baren landscape, with little vegetation. This is a stark difference to the
lush green hills on Na'Pali coast. Both images demonstrate the unspoken, and for many, unknown military occupancy on the Kaui'i.
United States Pacific Command (USPACOM) on O'ahu
Unlike Kaua'i, the military presence on O'ahu has been undisguised since the overthrow of Queen Lili'uokalani. The crown land and government land fell into the hands of the new government; the State of Hawai'i. Crown lands and government lands made up 40% of total island acreage, and The United States military took ahold of 10% of those lands and leased more back from the state. To this day, The United States military holds 5% of the total land in Hawai'i, with the concentration on O'ahu.
The United States Pacific Command (USPACOM) is an example of the US military's expansion into O'ahu . The United States Pacific Command (USPACOM) on the island of O'ahu acts as the intersection of ALL branches of the United States military . "Established as a unified command on January 1st, 1947", the USPACOM base can be located at Camp H.M Smith located at Halawa Heights near Aeia.(Imada, 2008) The United States Army, Navy, Marines, and Air-Force have multiple bases on O'ahu . This compilation of military operations is the largest and oldest in the United States. The USPACOM plays a HUGE role in the tourism industry, and the long standing military occupation of the Hawaiian Islands. (uspac.com)
"Mili-toursim" , coined by Adria L. Imada, entwines the immense military influence and tourism industry on the islands. "Tourism is the state's lagest industry, followed by the US Department of Defense Spending" and the military occupancy on Hawai'i
could not survive without the tourism industry (Imada, 2008). During the 1940s, images of festive luaus and Hawaiian Hula girls were first promoted by military personal. They made films and took pictures of hula girls and festive events they coined as luaus. The misrepresentation of Hawaiian culture
dismissed the storytelling in hula and misused the word lū‘au , which are "the young leaves of a taro plant that are cooked with meat".(Imada, 2008) The word 'aha'āina is the celebratory event commonly known as a luau .
The misrepresentation of "hula girls", like on the left, are prime examples of the tourist image of "paradise" curated by the US military.
Native Hawaiians in the Military
An important perspective that my research did not identify comes from Native Hawaiian military personal. Unfortunately, I did not have enough time to research this perspective but the experience should be mentioned. The United States military has great power on the islands, and military personal play a significant
role in understanding land dispossession and indigenous sovereignty. Essentially, Native Hawaiian military personal are acting on the behalf of the colonizer, but their identity as Indigenous people provides a unique perspective. The existence of Why do Native Hawaiians join the military, and how does it influence the fight for sovereignty?
Have Native Hawaiian soliders aided in land dispossession of their people in the past? If so, how?
What can the experiences of military personal say to the overall occupation of the Hawaiian islands? The experience of Native Hawaiian military is another aspect I did not explore. With the overthrow of Queen Lili'uokalani came a complete change in the government, including a change in the military. This histrocial perspective on the c'oup could be useful for analyzing that distinct moment in the monarchys history,
and the current issues of land dispossession and indigenous sovereignty on the islands.
Overall, there is a long history of land dispossession and military occupancy on the islands.The military has occupied O'ahu since the overthrow of Hawaiian monarch Queen Lili'uokalani in 1893, later establishing The United States Pacific Command. The "mili-tourism" on the island is a result of the ongoing occupation of Native land.
Kaua'i is a more covert military operation with the The Pacific Military Range Facility. There, various branches of the United States military and govenement test their weapons and alter the landscape of the islands. The "warning zones" created by the facility make it difficult for those in the fishing industry. In turn, the US military gains control of the
land and the open seas. The Great Mahele (1845-1855) altered the distribution of land on the islands, but the intentions were never for dispossession, rather they were meant to aid the Hawaiian Kingdom. Land dispossession and the consequences play a significant role for Kanaka Maoli because of their genelocial ties to the land.
The assault and occupation of the land are direct hits to the identity surrounding Native Hawaiians.
This project is not meant to attack the United States military. Instead, it sheds light on historical and existing issues the Native population faces. Coming from a military background, many of the privileges I have came from the dedication and service of those around me. I address my privileges, but I do realize the
harm Indigenous people have faced. There is sooooo much more to learn and much to be done. I hope this project revealed the REAL Hawai'i, one that is a mixture of the truth and the idea of "paradise".
News Article: Kauai after devastating storm: What's open, what's closed
http://www.latimes.com/travel/hawaii/la-tr-hawaii-whats-open-whats-closed-on-post-storm-kauai-20180425-story.html
Kalalea heiau
https://sugarcanecultureclub.wordpress.com/tag/kalalea-heiau/
Ho’okuleana
http://totakeresponsibility.blogspot.com/2013/10/kalalea-heiau.html
South Point Complex, Island of Hawai’i
https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/asian_american_and_pacific_islander_heritage/South-Point-Complex.htm
A Legendary Story of Ko'olau, As Serialized in the Newspaper Ka Leo o ka Lahui, July 11-20, 1893
https://search-proquest-com.proxy1.cl.msu.edu/docview/1795938484/abstract/5913F8962CAE425CPQ/1?accountid=12598
Hawaiian Issues
http://go.galegroup.com.proxy2.cl.msu.edu.proxy1.cl.msu.edu/ps/i.do?p=ITOF&u=msu_main&id=GALE|A155476102&v=2.1&it=r&sid=summon&authCount=1
Paradise Preserved - The enigmatic robinson family has been preserving hawaii's cultural heritage on the 'forbidden island' of niihau and its ecological heritage on kauai--but not without controversy
http://go.galegroup.com.proxy1.cl.msu.edu.proxy2.cl.msu.edu/ps/i.do?p=OVIC&u=msu_main&id=GALE|A78638146&v=2.1&it=r&sid=summon&authCount=1
Going Native
South Park Satire, Settler Colonialism, and Hawaiian Indigeneity
http://journals.sagepub.com.proxy2.cl.msu.edu/doi/10.1177/1532708616640562
Trophies of War: U.S. Troops and the Mutilation of Japanese War Dead, 1941-1945
https://www-jstor-org.proxy1.cl.msu.edu/stable/3640788?pq-origsite=summon&seq=8#page_scan_tab_contents
Anonymous. Political Bombshell: Despite a Nuclear-Free Threat, Military Spending on Kauai Skyrockets. Hawaii Business, Volume 31, Issue 1. Retrieved from https://search- proquest-com.proxy1.cl.msu.edu/docview/212577717?pq-origsite=summon
Banner, S. Preparing to Be Colonized: Land Tenure and Legal Strategy in Nineteenth-Century Hawaii. Law & Society Review, Volume 39, Issue 2. Retrieved from
https://search-proquest
com.proxy1.cl.msu.edu/docview/226933895/fulltext/3CBAEB83A58A487EPQ/1?accoun tid=12598
Beckwith, M. W. Function and Meaning of the Kumulipo Birth Chant in Ancient Hawaii. The Journal of American Folklore, Volume 62, No. 245. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.proxy1.cl.msu.edu/stable/pdf/537203.pdf
Brown, M. A. Mourning the land: Kanikau in Noho Hewa: the wrongful occupation of Hawai'i. The American Indian Quarterly, Section 38.3. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com.proxy1.cl.msu.edu.proxy2.cl.msu.edu/ps/i.do?p=ITOF&u=msu _main&id=GALE|A381053738&v=2.1&it=r&sid=summon&authCount=1
Goodyear-Ka’opua, N. Hawai’i: An Occupied Country. Harvard International Review, Volume 35, No.3. Retrieved from https://www-jstor-org.proxy1.cl.msu.edu/stable/42772693?pq- origsite=summon&seq=5#page_scan_tab_contents
Harris, P. Environmental protection as international security: Conserving the Petagon’s island bases in the Asia-Pacific. International Journal, Volume 69, No. 3. Retrieved from
https://www-jstor-org.proxy2.cl.msu.edu/stable/pdf/24709324.pdf
Imada, A. L. (Fall 2008). The Army Learns to Luau: Imperial Hospitality and Military Photography in Hawai‘i. The Contemporary Pacific, Volume 20, Issue 2. Retrieved from http://muse.jhu.edu.proxy1.cl.msu.edu/article/244084
Kent, N.J. (1983) Hawaii: Islands Under The Influence New York : Monthly Review Press.
Lafrance, A. (2015, October 30) What Makes a Volcano Sacred?. The Atlantic. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2015/10/what-makes-a-volcano-sacred/413203/
Letman, J. (2017, May 4) Kauai’s Quietly Expanding Military Role. The Diplomat. Retrieved from https://thediplomat.com/2017/05/kauais-quietly-expanding-military-role/
Letman, J. (2014, July 6). Pacific Missile Range Facility: Kauai's Biggest Bang Is Out of Sight. The Hawaii Independent. Retrieved from http://hawaiiindependent.net/story/pmrf-kauais- biggest-bang-is-out-of-sight
Van Dyke, J.M. Military exclusion and warning zones on the high seas. Marine Policy, Volume 15, Issue 3. Retrieved from https://www-sciencedirect-c om.proxy2.cl.msu.edu/science/article/pii/0308597X9190059K
Zickos, C. (2009, March 27) Military denies involvement with fish kills. The Garden Island. Retrieved from http://www.thegardenisland.com/2009/03/27/hawaii-news/military- denies-involvement-with-fish-kills/
CNIC Pacific Range Facility Barking Sands. Retrieved from https://cnic.navy.mil/regions/cnrh/installations/pacific_missile_range_facility_barking_sa nds.html
Hawaiian Story Of Creation. (2016, March 12). Retrieved from https://hiddenincatours.com/hawaiian-story-of-creation/
Kumulipo. (2018). Retrieved from http://www.ulukau.org/elib/cgi-bin/library?e=d-0beckwit2- 000Sec--11haw-50-20-frameset-book--1-010escapewin&a=d&d=D0&toc=0
militarybases.com. Barking Sands Missile Range Navy Base in Kekaha, HI. Retrieved from
https://militarybases.com/hawaii/barking-sands/
ʻŌiwi TV, & TV, A. ʻ. (2017, November 11). Act of War – ʻŌiwi TV. Retrieved from https://oiwi.tv/oiwitv/act-war/
Rhodes, D. L. (2001, November). CHAPTER V:CHANGES AFTER THE DEATH OF KAMEHAMEHA. Retrieved from https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/kona/history5g.htm
(2004, August) Hawaiian Sugar Planter’ Association Plantation Archive. Retrieved from http://www2.hawaii.edu/~speccoll/p_kekaha.html
Image 1- Map of the Hawaiian Islands Bonnie Niswonger. Pinterest"
Niswonger, B. Favorite Places and Spaces. Retrieved from
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/72690981455529990/
Image 2- Queen Lili'uokalani, Wikipedia"
Wikipedia. (2018, April 15). Lili’uokalani. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lili%CA%BBuokalani
Image 3- “Na Pali Coast, Kaua'i. hawaiistateparks.org”
Hawaii State Parks. Napali Coast State Wilderness Park. Retrieved from https://hawaiistateparks.org/parks/kauai/napali-coast-state-wilderness-park/
Image 4 – “Pacific Missile Range Facility,
Photo credit U.S Navy Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Omar Powell “
Powell, O. (2017, May 4). Three MV-22 Ospreys from U.S. Marines 3rd Battalion 3rd Regiment fly over Pacific Missile Range Facility during a joint exercise with three other countries as part of Rim of the Pacific (RIMPAC) 2016. Retrieved from https://thediplomat.com/2017/05/kauais-quietly-expanding-military-role/
Image 5 – "Postcard of Hulu Girl. Jessica Cangiano, Chronically Vintage."
Cangiano, J. (2014, April 22). Let's go on a vintage honeymoon to Hawaii. Retrieved from http://www.chronicallyvintage.com/2014/04/let-go-on-vintage-honeymoon-to-hawaii.html
Paul Neves, Kumu Halau in Hilo, Hawai'i
Conclusion
Additional Links
References
Article and Books
Websites
Images Cited
People